一.应收帐款及应付帐款在全年均维持在一个稳定的水平。

　　Professional Level – Essentials Module,

　　Professional Accountant

　　1 (a) (i) Three Kohlberg levels

　　At the preconventional level of moral reasoning, morality is conceived of in terms of rewards, punishments and

　　instrumental motivations. Those demonstrating intolerance of regulations in preference for self-serving motives are

　　typical preconventionalists.

　　At the conventional level, morality is understood in terms of compliance with either or both of peer pressure/social

　　expectations or regulations, laws and guidelines. A high degree of compliance is assumed to be a highly moral position.

　　At the postconventional level, morality is understood in terms of conformance with ‘higher’ or ‘universal’ ethical

　　principles. Postconventional assumptions often challenge existing regulatory regimes and social norms and so

　　postconventional behaviour is often costly in personal terms.

　　Level 1: Preconventional level

　　Stage/Plane 1: Punishment-obedience orientation

　　Stage/Plane 2: Instrumental relativist orientation

　　Level 2: Conventional level

　　Stage/Plane 3: Good boy-nice girl orientation

　　Stage/Plane 4: Law and order orientation

　　Level 3: Postconventional level

　　Stage/Plane 5: Social contract orientation

　　Stage/Plane 6: Universal ethical principle orientation

　　(ii) The level that Jack Mineta operated at

　　The evidence from the case suggests that Mr Mineta operated at the preconventional level. Although he seemed less

　　concerned with punishment, his actions were strongly driven by the incentives of financial rewards suggesting a rewards

　　orientation consistent with preconventional thinking. He seemed prepared to ignore internal control systems (‘I’m in this

　　job for what I can get for myself – big risks bring big returns and big bonuses for me.’). The internal control systems at

　　Global-bank placed clear limits on traders’ behaviour in terms of limits and exposure to the highest risk derivative

　　instruments. Mr Mineta was unconcerned about compliance with controls and prevailing rules would have suggested

　　conventional thinking. Had he complied with the internal control constraints, he would not have lost the large amount

　　of money. Nor would he have made the large prior profits but these were manifestly not sustainable. Miss Hubu’s

　　comment that he ‘didn’t believe in right and wrong’ excludes any suggestion that his ignoring of rules was driven by

　　postconventional assumptions.

　　(iii) Stage most appropriate for a professional bank employee

　　The most appropriate level of moral development for Mr Mineta in his work is stage 4 within the conventional level (level

　　2). This level stresses compliance with laws and regulations rather than the 3rd stage which is about compliance with

　　norms to gain social acceptance.

　　Stage 4 is concerned with legal and regulatory compliance and the moral right is that which is the most compliant with

　　prevailing regulatory systems.

　　[Tutorial note: it is possible to argue for other stages. Credit should be given for this only when robustly defended with

　　evidence. Unsupported assertions should not be rewarded.]

　　(b) FIVE typical causes of internal control failure and the performance of Global-bank

　　There are several possible causes of internal control failure. The UK Turnbull report (in paragraph 22) gives examples of

　　causes of failure but this list is not exhaustive.

　　Poor judgement in decision-making. Internal control failures can sometimes arise from individual decisions being made based

　　on inadequate information provision or by inexperienced staff.

　　Human error can cause failures although a well-designed internal control environment can help control this to a certain extent.

　　Control processes being deliberately circumvented by employees and others. It is very difficult to completely prevent deliberate